De periculo et commodo rei venditae
(Concerning the Risk and Advantages Attaching to Property Sold.)
1 Ulpianus libro vicesimo octavo ad Sabinum. Si vinum venditum acuerit vel quid aliud vitii sustinuerit, emptoris erit damnum, quemadmodum si vinum esset effusum vel vasis contusis vel qua alia ex causa. sed si venditor se periculo subiecit, in id tempus periculum sustinebit, quoad se subiecit: quod si non designavit tempus, eatenus periculum sustinere debet, quoad degustetur vinum, videlicet quasi tunc plenissime veneat, cum fuerit degustatum. aut igitur convenit, quoad periculum vini sustineat, et eatenus sustinebit, aut non convenit et usque ad degustationem sustinebit. sed si nondum sunt degustata, signata tamen ab emptore vasa vel dolia, consequenter dicemus adhuc periculum esse venditoris, nisi si aliud convenit. 1Sed et custodiam ad diem mensurae venditor praestare debet: priusquam enim admetiatur vinum, prope quasi nondum venit. post mensuram factam venditoris desinit esse periculum: et ante mensuram periculo liberatur, si non ad mensuram vendidit, sed forte amphoras vel etiam singula dolia. 2Si dolium signatum sit ab emptore, Trebatius ait traditum id videri: Labeo contra, quod et verum est: magis enim ne summutetur, signari solere, quam ut traditum videatur. 3Licet autem venditori vel effundere vinum, si diem ad metiendum praestituit nec intra diem admensum est: effundere autem non statim poterit, priusquam testando denuntiet emptori, ut aut tollat vinum aut sciat futurum, ut vinum effunderetur. si tamen, cum posset effundere, non effudit, laudandus est potius: ea propter mercedem quoque doliorum potest exigere, sed ita demum, si interfuit eius inania esse vasa in quibus vinum fuit (veluti si locaturus ea fuisset) vel si necesse habuit alia conducere dolia. commodius est autem conduci vasa nec reddi vinum, nisi quanti conduxerit ab emptore reddatur, aut vendere vinum bona fide: id est quantum sine ipsius incommodo fieri potest operam dare, ut quam minime detrimento sit ea res emptori. 4Si doliare vinum emeris nec de tradendo eo quicquam convenerit, id videri actum, ut ante evacuarentur quam ad vindemiam opera eorum futura sit necessaria: quod si non sint evacuata, faciendum, quod veteres putaverunt, per corbem venditorem mensuram facere et effundere: veteres enim hoc propter mensuram suaserunt, si, quanta mensura esset, non appareat, videlicet ut appareret, quantum emptori perierit.
1 Ulpianus, On Sabinus, Book XXVIII. If wine should become sour after having been sold, or should undergo any other defect, the purchaser must bear the loss; just as if it had been spilled on account of the vessels in which it was contained being broken, or for some other reason. If, however, the vendor assumes the risk, he must do so for the time during which he subjects himself to it; but where he did not designate the time, the wine will be at his risk until it is consumed, because, when this is done, the sale is then entirely concluded. Therefore, whether it is agreed that the wine shall be at his risk or not, he will be responsible for it until it is used up. If, however, before it is consumed, the vessels or cask containing it are sealed by the purchaser, we hold that the wine will still be at the risk of the vendor, unless some other agreement is made. 1The vendor must also be responsible for the safe-keeping of the wine until it is measured, for before it is measured it is, to a certain extent, not considered to be sold. After the measurement has been made, it ceases to be at the risk of the vendor, and, even before it is measured, he will be released from responsibility if he did not sell it by measure, but sold it by jars or by casks. 2Where a cask has been sealed by the purchaser, Trebatius says that it is held to have been delivered to him; Labeo, however, holds the contrary. The opinion of the latter is correct, for it is customary to seal a cask in order that the wine may not be changed, rather than to consider that it is delivered at the time. 3The vendor has a right to pour out the wine if he appointed a certain time for it to be measured, and this is not done on the day which was designated. He should not, however, pour it out before notifying the purchaser, in the presence of witnesses, either to remove the wine, or warning him that if he does not do so he will pour it out. It will be more praiseworthy, however, if he should not pour it out when he had a right to do so. Hence he can demand some compensation for the use of the casks, but only if it is to his interest for the casks which contained the wine to be empty; as, for example, if he was about to lease them, or if it was necessary for him to lease others instead. It is, however, more convenient to lease other vessels, and not to deliver the wine until the rent of the others has been paid by the purchaser, or to sell the wine in good faith; that is to say, to manage to do everything without inconveniencing one’s self, so that the least possible loss may result to the purchaser. 4If you buy wine in casks, and nothing has been agreed upon as to the time of its delivery, the intention will be held to be that the wine shall be drawn off before the casks will be needed for the next vintage. If they are not emptied by that time, the course adopted by the ancients should be taken; that is to say, the vendor should measure the wine by means of a basket, and let it run away, for the ancient authorities established this rule on account of the measurement, so that the amount of the measurement would not be apparent, but that the loss sustained by the purchaser would be known.
2 Gaius libro secundo cottidianarum rerum. Hoc ita verum est, si is est venditor, cui sine nova vindemia non sint ista vasa necessaria: si vero mercator est, qui emere vina et vendere solet, is dies spectandus est, quo ex commodo venditoris tolli possint. 1Custodiam autem ante admetiendi diem qualem praestare venditorem oporteat, utrum plenam, ut et diligentiam praestet, an vero dolum dumtaxat, videamus. et puto eam diligentiam venditorem exhibere debere, ut fatale damnum vel vis magna sit excusatum.
2 Gaius, Daily Occurrences, Book II. The following also is true, namely: if the vendor has need of the vessels for the new vintage, and he is a merchant who is in the habit of purchasing and selling wine, the time must be considered when the wine can conveniently be removed from the possession of the vendor. 1Moreover, let us see in what way the vendor must take care of the wine before the time appointed to measure it arrives; must he exercise exact or ordinary diligence, or is he only liable for fraud? I think that the vendor should merely exercise ordinary diligence, and is excusable in case of unavoidable accident or the display of superior force.
3 Paulus libro quinto ad Sabinum. Custodiam autem venditor talem praestare debet, quam praestant hi quibus res commodata est, ut diligentiam praestet exactiorem, quam in suis rebus adhiberet.
3 Paulus, On Sabinus, Book V. The vendor must exert the same care that he should do where articles are loaned for use; that is to say, he must exercise more exact diligence than he would with reference to his own property.
4 Ulpianus libro vicesimo octavo ad Sabinum. Si quis vina vendiderit et intra diem certum degustanda dixerit, deinde per venditorem steterit, quo minus degustarentur, utrum praeteritum dumtaxat periculum acoris et mucoris venditor praestare debet, an vero etiam die praeterito (ut, si forte corrupta sint posteaquam dies degustandi praeteriit, periculum ad venditorem pertineat), an vero magis emptio sit soluta (quasi sub condicione venierint, hoc est si ante diem illum fuissent degustata)? et intererit, quid actum sit: ego autem arbitror, si hoc in occulto sit, debere dici emptionem manere, periculum autem ad venditorem respicere etiam ultra diem degustando praefinitum, quia per ipsum factum est. 1Si aversione vinum venit, custodia tantum praestanda est. ex hoc apparet, si non ita vinum venit, ut degustaretur, neque acorem neque mucorem venditorem praestare debere, sed omne periculum ad emptorem pertinere: difficile autem est, ut quisquam sic emat, ut ne degustet. quare si dies degustationi adiectus non erit, quandoque degustare emptor poterit et quoad degustaverit, periculum acoris et mucoris ad venditorem pertinebit: dies enim degustationi praestitutus meliorem condicionem emptoris facit. 2Vino autem per aversionem vendito finis custodiae est avehendi tempus. quod ita erit accipiendum, si adiectum tempus est: ceterum si non sit adiectum, videndum, ne infinitam custodiam non debeat venditor. et est verius secundum ea quae supra ostendimus, aut interesse, quid de tempore actum sit, aut denuntiare ei, ut tollat vinum: certe antequam ad vindemiam fuerint dolia necessaria, debet avehi vinum.
4 Ulpianus, On Sabinus, Book XXVIII. If anyone should sell his wine, and state that it must be tasted within a certain time, and he, afterwards, was to blame for this not being done; should the vendor bear the risk of the sourness or mould of the wine, only for the time which had passed before the day which was fixed? Or would he also be liable after the time had elapsed; or, if the wine was spoiled after that time, must the vendor assume the risk? Or should it rather be held that the sale was concluded, since it had been made under a condition, that is to say, that the wine should be tested before a certain date? The intention of the parties is a matter of importance. I think, however, that if the intention cannot be ascertained, it should be held that the purchase still subsists, and that the vendor must assume the risk even after the day appointed for tasting the wine has gone by, because this was caused by himself. 1If the wine is sold in bulk, the vendor is only responsible for its custody; and from this it is apparent that if it is not sold under the condition of being tasted, the vendor will not be held liable for its sourness, or its mould, but the purchaser must bear the entire risk. It is, however, unusual for anyone to purchase wine without tasting it; and therefore if no day has been appointed for that purpose, the purchaser can taste it when he pleases, and up to the time when he does so, the vendor must be responsible for its sourness or mould; for when the day for tasting it has been fixed, it renders the condition of the purchaser better. 2Where wine has been sold in bulk, its custody ceases when the time for its removal arrives; and this must be understood to apply when the time is mentioned. If, however, it should not be mentioned, it must be considered whether the vendor is required to take care of it indefinitely. The better opinion is (in accordance with what we have explained above) that either the intention of the parties with reference to the time should be ascertained, or the purchaser should be notified to remove the wine. It is certain that the wine ought to be removed before the casks are required for the vintage.
5 Paulus libro quinto ad Sabinum. Si per emptorem steterit, quo minus ad diem vinum tolleret, postea, nisi quod dolo malo venditoris interceptum esset, non debet ab eo praestari. si verbi gratia amphorae centum ex eo vino, quod in cella esset, venierint, si admensum est, donec admetiatur, omne periculum venditoris est, nisi id per emptorem fiat.
5 Paulus, On Sabinus, Book V. If it was the fault of the purchaser that the wine was not removed at the appointed time, the vendor is not obliged to be responsible for it afterwards, unless the delay was caused by fraudulent intent on his part. If, for example, a hundred jars of wine in a certain cellar were sold, the vendor must bear the risk until they are measured, unless the purchaser was to blame for the delay.
6 Pomponius libro nono ad Sabinum. Si vina emerim exceptis acidis et mucidis et mihi expediat acida quoque accipere, Proculus ait, quamvis id emptoris causa exceptum sit, tamen acida et mucida non venisse: nam quae invitus emptor accipere non cogeretur, iniquum esse non permitti venditori vel alii ea vendere.
6 Pomponius, On Sabinus, Book IX. If I purchase certain wine, that which is sour and mouldy being excepted, Proculus says that, although this exception is made for the benefit of the purchaser, if he is willing to accept wine that is acid, still, acid and mouldy wine will not be included in the sale; for whatever the purchaser is not willing to accept, he should not be compelled to take, for this is unjust, and the vendor should not be permitted to sell the wine to another.
7 Paulus libro quinto ad Sabinum. Id, quod post emptionem fundo accessit per alluvionem vel perit, ad emptoris commodum incommodumque pertinet: nam et si totus ager post emptionem flumine occupatus esset, periculum esset emptoris: sic igitur et commodum eius esse debet. 1Quod venditur, in modum agri cedere debet, nisi si id actum est, ne cederet. at quod non venit, in modum cedendum, si id ipsum actum est, ut cederet, veluti viae publicae, limites, luci qui fundum tangunt: cum vero neutrum dictum est, cedere non debet, et ideo nominatim caveri solet, ut luci, viae publicae, quae in fundo sint, totae in modum cedant.
7 Paulus, On Sabinus, Book V. If, after a sale, an addition is made to land by alluvial deposit, or its amount is diminished from the same cause, the purchaser will enjoy the advantage, or suffer the inconvenience. For if, after the sale, the entire field is covered by a river, the purchaser must bear the loss, and therefore, in the same manner, he is entitled to any benefit arising therefrom. 1Everything that is sold must be conveyed with the land, unless it has been agreed upon that this should not be done. Whatever cannot be measured must also be transferred, if this was the understanding; as, for instance, highways, boundaries, and groves adjoining the premises. Where, however, nothing was said on the subject, these need not be transferred; and therefore it is customary to expressly provide that groves, and public highways which are in the tract of land shall all be measured, and included in the transfer.
8 Idem libro trigesimo tertio ad edictum. Necessario sciendum est, quando perfecta sit emptio: tunc enim sciemus, cuius periculum sit: nam perfecta emptione periculum ad emptorem respiciet. et si id quod venierit appareat quid quale quantum sit, sit et pretium, et pure venit, perfecta est emptio: quod si sub condicione res venierit, si quidem defecerit condicio, nulla est emptio, sicuti nec stipulatio: quod si exstiterit, Proculus et Octavenus emptoris esse periculum aiunt: idem Pomponius libro nono probat. quod si pendente condicione emptor vel venditor decesserit, constat, si exstiterit condicio, heredes quoque obligatos esse quasi iam contracta emptione in praeteritum. quod si pendente condicione res tradita sit, emptor non poterit eam usucapere pro emptore. et quod pretii solutum est repetetur et fructus medii temporis venditoris sunt (sicuti stipulationes et legata condicionalia peremuntur), si pendente condicione res exstincta fuerit: sane si exstet res, licet deterior effecta, potest dici esse damnum emptoris. 1Si ita venierit: ‘est ille servus emptus, sive navis ex Asia venerit sive non venerit’, Iulianus putat statim perfectam esse venditionem, quoniam certum sit eam contractam. 2Cum usum fructum mihi vendis, interest, utrum ius utendi fruendi, quod solum tuum sit, vendas, an vero in ipsum corpus, quod tuum sit, usum fructum mihi vendas: nam priore casu etiamsi statim morieris, nihil mihi heres tuus debebit, heredi autem meo debebitur, si tu vivis: posteriore casu heredi meo nihil debebitur, heres tuus debebit.
8 The Same, On the Edict, Book XXXIII. It is necessary to ascertain when the sale is complete, for we will then know who must be responsible for the risk; as, when the sale has been perfected, the purchaser must assume it. If the quality and quantity of the property to be sold are determined, as well as the price of the same, and it is sold without any condition, the transaction is complete. If, however, it is sold under a condition, and the condition should not be complied with, the sale is void, just as in the case of a stipulation. Proculus and Octavenus say that the property is at the risk of the purchaser as soon as the condition is complied with, and Pomponius approves this opinion in the Ninth Book. If, however, while the condition is still pending, either the purchaser or the vendor should die, it is established that if the condition is fulfilled, their heirs will also be bound, just as if the transaction had been concluded with reference to some time that had passed. But, if the property is delivered while the condition is pending, the purchaser, as such, cannot acquire it by usucaption, and he can recover any of the price which he may have paid, while the crops gathered during the intermediate time will belong to the vendor; in the same way as stipulations and conditional legacies are terminated if, the property should be destroyed while the condition remains unfulfilled. It is clear that if the property survives, although in a damaged condition, the purchaser must bear the loss. 1Where a sale is made in the following terms: “This slave is sold whether a certain ship does, or does not arrive from Asia.” Julianus is of the opinion that the sale is instantly concluded, since it is certain that the contract is complete. 2If you sell me the usufruct of certain property, it makes a difference whether you merely dispose of the right of using and enjoying it, which alone belongs to you, or whether, if you own the property, you sell me the usufruct of the same; for, in the first instance, even if you should immediately die, your heir will owe me nothing, but if you live, the right will pass to my heir. In the second instance, nothing will pass to my heir, but your heir will incur the obligation.
9 Gaius libro decimo ad edictum provinciale. Si post inspectum praedium, antequam emptio contraheretur, arbores vento deiectae sunt, an hae quoque emptori tradi debeant, quaeritur: et responsum est non deberi, quia eas non emerit, cum ante, quam fundum emerit, desierint fundi esse. sed si ignoravit emptor deiectas esse arbores, venditor autem scit nec admonuit, quanti emptoris interfuerit rem aestimandam esse, si modo venit.
9 Gaius, On the Provincial Edict, Book X. If, after the examination of a tract of land, and before the contract of sale is made, the trees on said tract are overthrown by the force of the wind, the question arises whether they, also, should be delivered to the purchaser? The answer is that they should not, because he did not purchase them, since before he bought the land they ceased to be a part of it. Where, however, the purchaser was not aware that the trees had been overthrown, but the vendor knew it and did not inform him, he will be liable for damages to the amount of interest of the purchaser, provided the sale takes place.
10 Ulpianus libro octavo disputationum. Si in venditione condicionali hoc ipsum convenisset, ut res periculo emptoris servaretur, puto pactum valere.
10 Ulpianus, Disputations, Book VIII. Where, in a conditional sale, it was also agreed that the property should remain at the risk of the purchaser, I think that the agreement will be valid.
11 In libro septimo digestorum Iuliani Scaevola notat:. Fundi nomine emptor agere non potest, cum, priusquam mensura fieret, inundatione aquarum aut chasmate aliove quo casu pars fundi interierit.
11 Scævola says in a note on the Seventh Book of Julianus, that a purchaser cannot bring an action for the recovery of land which has been sold, when, before its measurement was taken, a portion of said land was destroyed by an inundation, or by an earthquake, or by any other accident.
12 Alfenus Varus libro secundo digestorum. Si vendita insula combusta esset, cum incendium sine culpa fieri non possit, quid iuris sit? respondit, quia sine patris familias culpa fieri potest neque, si servorum neglegentia factum esset, continuo dominus in culpa erit, quam ob rem si venditor eam diligentiam adhibuisset in insula custodienda, quam debent homines frugi et diligentes praestare, si quid accidisset, nihil ad eum pertinebit.
12 Alfenus Verus, Digest, Book II. Where a house which has been sold is burned, as a fire cannot take place without someone being responsible, what is the law? The answer is that, because a fire can take place without the fault of the head of the household, if it was not caused by the negligence of his slaves, the master will not necessarily be to blame. Hence, if the vendor exercises the same diligence in taking care of the house as thrifty and diligent men are accustomed to do, and any accident should happen, he will not be responsible.
13 Paulus libro tertio Alfeni epitomarum. Lectos emptos aedilis, cum in via publica positi essent, concidit: si traditi essent emptori aut per eum stetisset quo minus traderentur, emptoris periculum esse placet.
13 Paulus, Epitomes of the Digest of Alfenus, Book III. The ædile broke up some beds which a party had purchased, and which had been left on the highway. If they had been delivered to the purchaser, or if he was to blame for their not having been delivered, he must bear the loss.
14 Iulianus libro tertio ad Urseium Ferocem. Eumque cum aedili, si id non iure fecisset, habiturum actionem legis Aquiliae: aut certe cum venditore ex empto agendum esse, ut is actiones suas, quas cum aedile habuisset, ei praestaret.
14 Julianus, On Urseius Ferox, Book III. The purchaser would be entitled to an action under the Lex Aquilia against the ædile, if he acted illegally; or he will certainly have an action on sale against the vendor, to compel him to assign to him the rights of action which he has against the Ædile.
15 Paulus libro tertio epitomatorum Alfeni. Quod si neque traditi essent neque emptor in mora fuisset quo minus traderentur, venditoris periculum erit. 1Materia empta si furto perisset, postquam tradita esset, emptoris esse periculo respondit, si minus, venditoris: videri autem trabes traditas, quas emptor signasset.
15 Paulus, Epitomes of the Digest of Alfenus, Book III. If the beds had not been delivered, and the purchaser had not prevented their delivery by delay, the loss must be borne by the vendor. 1Where materials that have been purchased are lost by theft, after delivery, it is held that the purchaser must bear the loss; otherwise, the vendor must do so. Timbers are considered to have been delivered as soon as the purchaser has marked them.
16 Gaius libro secundo cottidianarum rerum. Si vina quae in doliis erunt venierint eaque, antequam ab emptore tollerentur, sua natura corrupta fuerint, si quidem de bonitate eorum adfirmavit venditor, tenebitur emptori: quod si nihil adfirmavit, emptoris erit periculum, quia sive non degustavit sive degustando male probavit, de se queri debet. plane si, cum intellegeret venditor non duraturam bonitatem eorum usque ad in eum diem quo tolli deberent, non admonuit emptorem, tenebitur ei, quanti eius interesset admonitum fuisse.
16 Gaius, Daily Occurrences, Book II. Where wine in casks is sold, and it is spoiled on account of its nature, before it is removed by the purchaser, and the vendor has vouched for the good quality of the wine, he will be liable to the purchaser; but if he said nothing with reference to this, the purchaser must bear the loss, either because he did not taste the wine, or, if he did taste it, he formed an incorrect opinion, and has only himself to blame. It is clear that if the vendor knew that the good quality of the wine would not last until the day when it was to be removed, and did not notify the purchaser, he will be liable to the extent of the interest of the latter in being warned.
17 Iavolenus libro septimo ex Cassio. Servi emptor si eum conductum rogavit, donec pretium solveret, nihil per eum servum adquirere poterit, quoniam non videtur traditus is, cuius possessio per locationem retinetur a venditore. periculum eius servi ad emptorem pertinet, quod tamen sine dolo venditoris intervenerit.
17 Javolenus, On Cassius, Book VII. Where the purchaser of a slave asks permission to hire him until he can pay his price, he will acquire nothing through the services of said slave, since he is not held to be delivered whose possession is retained by the vendor through hiring him. The purchaser will be responsible for the slave, where anything happens to him without the fraud of the vendor.
18 Pomponius libro trigesimo primo ad Quintum Mucium. Illud sciendum est, cum moram emptor adhibere coepit, iam non culpam, sed dolum malum tantum praestandum a venditore. quod si per venditorem et emptorem mora fuerit, Labeo quidem scribit emptori potius nocere quam venditori moram adhibitam, sed videndum est, ne posterior mora damnosa ei sit. quid enim si interpellavero venditorem et non dederit id quod emeram, deinde postea offerente illo ego non acceperim? sane hoc casu nocere mihi deberet. sed si per emptorem mora fuisset, deinde, cum omnia in integro essent, venditor moram adhibuerit, cum posset se exsolvere, aequum est posteriorem moram venditori nocere.
18 Pomponius, On Quintus Mucius, Book XXXI. It must be noted that, as soon as the purchaser begins to be in default, the vendor will be responsible, not for negligence, but only for fraud. If both vendor and purchaser should be in default, Labeo says that the purchaser will be more prejudiced thereby than the vendor. It must, however, be considered, whether the party who is last in default, is not the more prejudiced, for what would be the case if I notify the vendor, and he does not deliver the property which I bought, and then, when he afterwards tenders it, I refuse to accept it? It is clear that, in this instance I should be the one to suffer by the default. But if the default was caused by the purchaser, and then, while everything was intact, the vendor should be in default when he was able to make the delivery, it is only just that he should suffer by the later delay.
19 Papinianus libro tertio responsorum. Habitationum oneribus morte libertorum finitis emptor domus ob eam causam venditori non tenebitur, si nihil aliud convenit, quam ut habitationes secundum defuncti voluntatem super pretium libertis praestarentur. 1Ante pretium solutum dominii quaestione mota pretium emptor solvere non cogetur, nisi fideiussores idonei a venditore eius evictionis offerantur.
19 Papinianus, Opinions, Book III. Where the obligation of furnishing a lodging to freedmen is terminated by their death, the purchaser of the property will not be liable to the vendor on this account; if no other agreement was made than that a lodging should be furnished the freedmen in compliance with the will of the deceased, in addition to the price paid. 1Where a controversy arises, with reference to the ownership of property, before the price is paid; the purchaser is not compelled to pay it, unless solvent securities against his eviction are furnished by the vendor.
20 Hermogenianus libro secundo iuris epitomarum. Venditori si emptor in pretio solvendo moram fecerit, usuras dumtaxat praestabit, non omne omnino, quod venditor mora non facta consequi potuit, veluti si negotiator fuit et pretio soluto ex mercibus plus quam ex usuris quaerere potuit.
20 Hermogenianus, Epitomes of Law, Book II. Where the purchaser is in default to the vendor for the payment of the price, he must only pay him interest, and he will not be liable for anything that the vendor might have obtained, if there had been no delay; as, for instance, if the vendor was a merchant, and the price having been paid, he could have gained more from the sale of his merchandise than from the interest.