De divisione rerum et qualitate
(Concerning the division and nature of things.)
1 Gaius libro secundo institutionum. Summa rerum divisio in duos articulos deducitur: nam aliae sunt divini iuris, aliae humani. divini iuris sunt veluti res sacrae et religiosae. sanctae quoque res, veluti muri et portae, quodammodo divini iuris sunt. quod autem divini iuris est, id nullius in bonis est: id vero, quod humani iuris est, plerumque alicuius in bonis est, potest autem et nullius in bonis esse: nam res hereditariae, antequam aliquis heres existat, nullius in bonis sunt. hae autem res, quae humani iuris sunt, aut publicae sunt aut privatae. quae publicae sunt, nullius in bonis esse creduntur, ipsius enim universitatis esse creduntur: privatae autem sunt, quae singulorum sunt. 1Quaedam praeterea res corporales sunt, quaedam incorporales. corporales hae sunt, quae tangi possunt, veluti fundus homo vestis aurum argentum et denique aliae res innumerabiles: incorporales sunt, quae tangi non possunt, qualia sunt ea, quae in iure consistunt, sicut hereditas, usus fructus, obligationes quoquo modo contractae. nec ad rem pertinet, quod in hereditate res corporales continentur: nam et fructus, qui ex fundo percipiuntur, corporales sunt, et id quod ex aliqua obligatione nobis debetur plerumque corporale est, veluti fundus homo pecunia: nam ipsum ius successionis et ipsum ius utendi fruendi et ipsum ius obligationis incorporale est. eodem numero sunt et iura praediorum urbanorum et rusticorum, quae etiam servitutes vocantur.
1 Gaius, Institutes, Book II. The principal division of Things is under two heads: for some of them belong to Divine and some to human law. Those which come under Divine law are, for instance, sacred and religious things. Sacred things are, for example, walls and gates, which, to a certain extent, are under Divine law. For what is subject to Divine law is not the property of anyone, and that indeed which belongs to human law is, for the most part, the property of someone, nevertheless, it may belong to none, for things belonging to an estate until an heir appears, are not the property of anyone. Again, those things that are under human law are either public or private. Those which are public are held to be the property of no one, and are considered to belong to the entire community, and those which are private belong to individuals. 1Moreover, some things are corporeal, and some are incorporeal. Those are corporeal which are tangible, as for instance land, slaves, clothing, gold, silver, as well as innumerable other articles. Those are incorporeal which cannot be touched as an usufruct, and obligations, in whatever way contracted. It does not matter if corporeal things are included in an estate, for the crops taken from land are corporeal, and whatever is owing to us through the obligation of another, is for the most part corporeal, as land, slaves, money; still, the right of succession, the right of use and enjoyment, and the right based upon an obligation are all incorporeal. To the same class belong all the rights of urban and rustic estates, which are designated as servitudes.
2 Marcianus libro tertio institutionum. Quaedam naturali iure communia sunt omnium, quaedam universitatis, quaedam nullius, pleraque singulorum, quae variis ex causis cuique adquiruntur. 1Et quidem naturali iure omnium communia sunt illa: aer, aqua profluens, et mare, et per hoc litora maris.
2 Marcianus, Institutes, Book III. Certain things are common to all by natural law; some belong to the entire community, some to no one, and the greater number to individuals; these are acquired in various ways respectively. 1Again, all the following things are common by natural law, namely the air, running water, the sea, and hence the shores of the sea.
3 Florentinus institutionum libro sexto. Item lapilli, gemmae ceteraque, quae in litore invenimus, iure naturali nostra statim fiunt.
3 Florentinus, Institutes, Book VI. Likewise, precious stones, gems, and other things which we find upon the seashore also at once become ours by natural law.
4 Marcianus libro tertio institutionum. Nemo igitur ad litus maris accedere prohibetur piscandi causa, dum tamen villis et aedificiis et monumentis abstineatur, quia non sunt iuris gentium sicut et mare: idque et divus Pius piscatoribus Formianis et Capenatis rescripsit. 1Sed flumina paene omnia et portus publica sunt.
4 Marcianus, Institutes, Book III. Consequently no one can be forbidden to approach the shore of the sea in order to fish; still, they must avoid interfering with houses, buildings, and monuments, because they are not subject to the Law of Nations, as the sea is; and this the Divine Pius stated in a Rescript addressed to the fisherman of Formiæ and Capena. 1Almost all rivers and harbors are also public.
5 Gaius libro secundo rerum cottidianarum sive aureorum. Riparum usus publicus est iure gentium sicut ipsius fluminis. itaque navem ad eas appellere, funes ex arboribus ibi natis religare, retia siccare et ex mare reducere, onus aliquid in his reponere cuilibet liberum est, sicuti per ipsum flumen navigare. sed proprietas illorum est, quorum praediis haerent: qua de causa arbores quoque in his natae eorundem sunt. 1In mare piscantibus liberum est casam in litore ponere, in qua se recipiant,
5 Gaius, Legal Doctrines of Daily Application and Utility. Book II. The public use of the banks of rivers is subject to the Law of Nations, just as the rivers themselves are. Therefore, everyone is free to conduct a boat to the bank; to attach ropes to trees growing there; to dry nets, and draw them up from the sea; and to deposit any cargo thereon; just as he can navigate the river itself. The ownership of the banks, however, is vested in those to whose lands they are contiguous; for which reason the trees growing upon them also belong to the latter. 1Those who fish in the sea have a right to erect a hut upon the shore in which to shelter themselves.
6 Marcianus libro tertio institutionum. in tantum, ut et soli domini constituantur qui ibi aedificant, sed quamdiu aedificium manet: alioquin aedificio dilapso quasi iure postliminii revertitur locus in pristinam causam, et si alius in eodem loco aedificaverit, eius fiet. 1Universitatis sunt non singulorum veluti quae in civitatibus sunt theatra et stadia et similia et si qua alia sunt communia civitatium. ideoque nec servus communis civitatis singulorum pro parte intellegitur, sed universitatis et ideo tam contra civem quam pro eo posse servum civitatis torqueri divi fratres rescripserunt. ideo et libertus civitatis non habet necesse veniam edicti petere, si vocet in ius aliquem ex civibus. 2Sacrae res et religiosae et sanctae in nullius bonis sunt. 3Sacrae autem res sunt hae, quae publice consecratae sunt, non private: si quis ergo privatim sibi [ed. maior constituerit sacrum] <ed. minor sacrum constituerit>, sacrum non est, sed profanum. semel autem aede sacra facta etiam diruto aedificio locus sacer manet. 4Religiosum autem locum unusquisque sua voluntate facit, dum mortuum infert in locum suum. in commune autem sepulchrum etiam invitis ceteris licet inferre. sed et in alienum locum concedente domino licet inferre: et licet postea ratum habuerit quam illatus est mortuus, religiosus locus fit. 5Cenotaphium quoque magis placet locum esse religiosum, sicut testis in ea re est Vergilius.
6 Marcianus, Institutes, Book III. This right exists to such an extent that those who build there actually become the owners of the land, but only as long as the building stands; otherwise, if it falls down, the place reverts to its former condition by the law of postliminium, so to speak, and if another party builds a house in the same place, the soil becomes his. 1There are some things which, by natural law, belong to the entire community and not to individuals; as, for instance, theatres, racecourses, and other things of this kind, or anything else which is the common property of a city. Therefore, a slave belonging to a city is not understood to be the property of any individual in particular, but of the entire community; and for this reason the Divine Brothers stated in a Rescript that a slave belonging to a city could be put to torture either against a citizen or in his behalf. In consequence of this, also the freedman of a city is not compelled to ask permission under the Edict, if he brings any citizen into court. 2Things which are sacred, religious, and holy are not the property of anyone. 3Sacred things are those which are publicly and not privately consecrated; and hence if anyone should make anything sacred for himself privately, it is not sacred but profane; where, however, a temple has once been made sacred the place still remains so, even after the edifice has been demolished. 4Anyone by his will can render a place religious by burying a corpse on his own premises; and where a burial-place belongs to several persons, one of the owners can inter a body there, even though the others may be unwilling. An interment can also be made upon the land of another, if the owner consents; and even where he ratifies it afterwards the place where the corpse was buried becomes religious. 5Again, the better opinion is that an empty tomb is a religious place, as is stated in Virgil.
7 Ulpianus libro vicensimo quinto ad edictum. Sed divi fratres contra rescripserunt.
7 Ulpianus, On the Edict, Book XXV. Nevertheless, the Divine Brothers published a Rescript to the contrary.
8 Marcianus libro quarto regularum. Sanctum est, quod ab iniuria hominum defensum atque munitum est. 1Sanctum autem dictum est a sagminibus: sunt autem sagmina quaedam herbae, quas legati populi Romani ferre solent, ne quis eos violaret, sicut legati Graecorum ferunt ea quae vocantur Cerycia. 2In municipiis quoque muros esse sanctos Sabinum recte respondisse Cassius refert, prohiberique oportere ne quid in his immitteretur.
8 Marcianus, Rules, Book IV. A holy place is one which is defended and protected from the injuries of men. 1The word “sacred” is said to have been derived from the word sagmina, certain plants which were usually carried by the ambassadors of the Roman people to prevent their persons from being violated; just as the Greek Ambassadors carried those which are called khrukia. 2Cassius states that Sabinus very properly gave the opinion that the walls of a city were holy, and that it was necessary for persons to be prohibited from placing anything against them.
9 Ulpianus libro sexagensimo octavo ad edictum. Sacra loca ea sunt, quae publice sunt dedicata, sive in civitate sint sive in agro. 1Sciendum est locum publicum tunc sacrum fieri posse, cum princeps eum dedicavit vel dedicandi dedit potestatem. 2Illud notandum est aliud esse sacrum locum, aliud sacrarium. sacer locus est locus consecratus, sacrarium est locus, in quo sacra reponuntur, quod etiam in aedificio privato esse potest, et solent, qui liberare eum locum religione volunt, sacra inde evocare. 3Proprie dicimus sancta, quae neque sacra neque profana sunt, sed sanctione quadam confirmata: ut leges sanctae sunt, sanctione enim quadam sunt subnixae. quod enim sanctione quadam subnixum est, id sanctum est, etsi deo non sit consecratum: et interdum in sanctionibus adicitur, ut qui ibi aliquid commisit, capite puniatur. 4Muros autem municipales nec reficere licet sine principis vel praesidis auctoritate nec aliquid eis coniungere vel superponere. 5Res sacra non recipit aestimationem.
9 Ulpianus, On the Edict, Book LXVIII. Sacred places are those which are dedicated to the public, either in the city or in the country. 1It should be understood that a public place can only become sacred when the Emperor has dedicated it, or granted permission for this to be done. 2It must be remarked that a sacred place is one thing and a sacrarium is another; for a sacred place is one which has been consecrated, and a sacrarium is one in which sacred things are deposited, which also may exist in a private house; and when persons desire to divest such a place of its religious character they usually withdraw the sacred things therefrom. 3We properly call those things holy which are neither sacred nor profane, but which have been confirmed by some sanction, hence the laws are holy, for the reason that they are based upon a certain sanction; and anything that is supported by a certain sanction also is holy, even though it may not be consecrated to God; and it is even sometimes added in the sanction itself that anyone who is guilty of an offence in that place shall be punished with death. 4Moreover, it is not permitted to repair the walls of cities, or to add anything to them, or place anything upon them, without the authority of the Emperor or the Governor. 5Anything that is sacred is not susceptible of appraisement.
10 Pomponius libro sexto ex Plautio. Aristo ait, sicut id, quod in mare aedificatum sit, fieret privatum, ita quod mari occupatum sit, fieri publicum.
10 Pomponius, On Plautius, Book VI. Aristo declares that just as anything built into the sea becomes private property, so whatever the sea encroaches upon becomes public property.
11 Pomponius libro secundo ex variis lectionibus. Si quis violaverit muros, capite punitur, sicuti si quis transcendet scalis admotis vel alia qualibet ratione. nam cives Romanos alia quam per portas egredi non licet, cum illud hostile et abominandum sit: nam et Romuli frater remus occisus traditur ob id, quod murum transcendere voluerit.
11 Pomponius, From Various Passages, Book II. Where anyone trespasses upon the walls, he is punished with death; just as where anyone climbs over them by means of ladders, or in any other manner; since Roman citizens are not permitted to leave a city except by the gates; as the former is an act of hostility and abominable. It is said that Remus, the brother of Romulus, was killed because he wished to scale the wall.